ECG EDUCTION-A-ECG BASIC-

ECG INTERPRETATIONS

An ElectroCardioGram or ECG (more frequently as  EKG in which K replaces C which represents the first letter of the German word 'Kardio') is the testing of electrical conductions through the heart muscles (Myocardium) which describes the regular 'SINUS RHYTHMs' and the heartbeats in the form of line waves which can be recorded graphically.

In this article we can study all the basics of how to interpret the ECG.

Fig-2

All ECGs are recorded in graph papers that contain large and small squares. Every large square is composed of five small squares. These squares represent seconds.

Each small squares are 1 m.m in width horizontally by which we can calculate the width of the large squares as 5 mm horizontally.

The horizontal axis (the X-axis) represents time. Every 1mm square in the X-axis(the time axis) represents 0.04 seconds and every large square represents 0.04 x 5⇔0.20 seconds.

The above calculations are based on the ECG machine speed which is set up to move the ECG paper by 25 mm per second.
The vertical Y-axis represents the electrical conductions that can be recorded in millivolts and which are in the form of positive and negative deflections.
The positive deflection is the one which deflects upward and above the isoelectric line-the X-axis.
On the contrary the negative deflection is the one which goes down below the isoelectric line.
An isoelectric line is the one in which there are no deflections or electric conductions and that is a brief resting position in between two conduction cycles and that is usually represented by the T-P interval which we will understand in due course.
Again the vertical Y-axis contains the dependent variable the cardiac electric deflections in millivolts which can be calculated as follows.
On a standard ECG paper a deflection of the pointer above or below the isoelectric line with 10 small squares represents + or - 1 mV provided that each small square has a width of 1mm.
That is 10mm above or below deflection =+ or - 1mV.
From a normal ECG we can study so many important health parameters including arrhythmias and other heart problems such as atrial fibrillation, atrial flutter, ventricular fibrillation, myocardial infarction(MI), heart rate, normal sinus rhythm, sinus bradycardia, and sinus tachycardia etc.etc.
A normal adult heartbeat is 80 to 100 bpm. (beats per minute)
The normal range is from 70 to 100 bpm.
For a newborn baby it may be between 90 to 160.
A beat or rhythm is a full ventricular depolarization or contraction, which is the systole represented by the QRS complex in the ECG graph. The QRS is followed by a brief gap to another small bump deflected above the isoelectric line which is the T-wave.The T- wave is the end of one full sinus rhythm.T-wave represents the ventricular repolarization or relaxation.
T-P interval is the resting interval in which no conduction which represents the isoelectric line. The isoelectric line goes until the next cycle begins at P-wave which represents the atrial depolarization, the diastole.
To calculate the heart beats per minute you have to do the followings:-
We already know that the speed of the ECG is 25mm per sec. That means,
                            1 sec   = 25 mm
                            60 sec = 25X60=1500 mm
 Hence 1 min =1500 mm or 1500 small squares
We know that 5 small squares constitute one large square and hence in one minute 300 large squares are moved in the ECG. Count the number of R-waves which represent the heart rate per minute by this 300 sq.method.This 300 is the magic number that we can use to find out our heart rate in the standard large square method. There is another method known as a 6-sec method which we will see later.
            Before we perform any of the above two methods we must confirm that the ECG is normal with regular sinus rhythms. To do this first you take an empty white strip of a paper. overlap the strip exactly to coincide with the ECG and mark with a pen any one of the completed sinus rhythms or any of the two consecutive R-R intervals to find out all R-R gaps are equal to each other. This can be done by overlap the mark upon one by one of the following R-R intervals. If the mark fits exactly on all the R-R intervals then we can say the ECG is normal with regular sinus rhythm.
Now we can proceed with the large square method to determine the heart or pulse rate.
Method-1:-The Large Square Method:-
Spread your ECG on the table.
Count the number of large squares between any two consecutive R-R intervals.
Divide 300 by this number,
The result is your heart beats per minute.
Method-2-The Six seconds Method:-
In this method the ECG must be taken in a 6-second strip paper. Note that there are three lines on the upper part of the strip for every 6 seconds. Count the number of R-waves within these 3 lines  (6 sec) and multiply the number by ten which gives the heartbeats per minute.
This method is useful even if your ECG is not normal.
The 6-second gap can also be calculated as follows:-
Assuming that the speed of the ECG is 25mm/sec.
Accordingly we already noticed that in one minute 300 large squares have passed.
hence                                 1 min = 300 large sq.
                                    (ie) 60 sec= 300 large sq
                              then for 6 sec = 30 large sq
Hence mark down the gap which includes 30 large squires.
Now count the number of R-waves within this gap and multiply it by 10 which will yield the heart rate in beats per minute.

General Nomenclature of an ECG:-

In this section we can find the naming of the ECG parts.

Normally an ECG is appearing like this.

    

Fig-3

In the above diagram we can observe various conductions and their relationships with a normal ECG.

The electrical responses of the various parts of the heart muscle can be classified briefly as follows:-

0-Phase:-In this phase sodium ion flows inwards rapidly into the myocardial cell and depolarizes it the muscle contracted which is represented by elevation in the graph (see diagram)

1-Phase: -A short but powerful drop-in which all sodium ion gates closed and there is a powerful outflow of potassium ion from the cell with the exchange for the chloride ion which flows into the cell and the myocardium repolarizes and relaxes (note in the above diagram this phase is absent in SA and AV nodal conductions.)This phase is present only in the Purkinje fibers that are the ventricular response. This means the ventricles after a shoot up contraction undergo a brief relaxation which can be evidently seen in the ECG as S-wave at the QRS complex.

2-Phase:-This is the phase very prominent and important in the electrophysiology of the heart. In this there is a continuous potassium ion efflux and calcium ion influx to form a plateau in the cardiogram. In the above diagram you can notify this plateau as the S-T interval in ECG.

3-Phase:-In this phase the calcium ion gates are closed and continuous efflux of potassium ion. This is the rapid repolarization or relaxation of the ventricles which can be seen in the ECG as T-waves.

4-Phase:-This is diastolic depolarization in which the ventricles are ready for another cycle. The resting phase is maintained by continuous potassium efflux and slow sodium and calcium ion influx. This is represented in the ECG as the isoelectric line.

FIG-4

At the beginning of the heartbeat first the conduction starts at the SA (Sinoatrial)- node which is situated at the top right corner of the right atrium (right upper chamber) of the heart. Sinoatrial node is the pacemaker to start the heart rhythm. It spontaneously depolarizes with a slow response and spread the electrical conduction to the left atrium and down to the ventricles.

The diaphragm which separates the atria from the ventricles is totally inert and will not respond to electrical conduction. Hence the conduction from the SA node goes to the AV node directly.

But before it reaches the ventricles the conduction is paused for a while by the AV (atrioventricular) node which briefly takes time to decides to send the conduction down to the lower chambers are not. This is represented in the ECG as the P-R or P-Q interval. The AV node is situated at the left bottom of the right atrium and just above and very near to the center of the two ventricles.

Up to the AV node the muscle responses to the conduction are slow in order to give enough time to the AV node to decide.

Once the AV-node comes decided it responds quickly and passes the conduction to the Bundle of His, which is situated at the top-bottom junction of the two ventricles or at the inferior end of the internal septum to the ventricles. (See the figure-4 above)

The bundle of His quickly responds to the conduction and passes it to its branches on either side. The branches then pass it quickly and finally to the Purkinje Fibers which holds the two ventricles. The conduction passes to the ventricular muscles which depolarize quickly and powerfully contract with a sound 'dup'.The ventricular contraction is the powerful one that overshadows the atrial repolarization or relaxation. The ventricular contraction is represented by the QRS complex which masks the atrial relaxation in the ECG. You can note from the above figure the QRS complex is the main part of an ECG which exactly at the overshoot region of the Purkinje fiber (ventricular) response drawn above the ECG (See Fig-3 above)

Now we will go back to the P-wave the first part of the ECG.

From the above figure (Fig-3) the P-wave is the region represented by the atrial contraction(depolarization) which is slow and deflect to a small part just above the isoelectric line (X-axis or Time-axis)

We have already seen that the atrial relaxation (repolarization) is masked in the QRS complex.

Now come to the end portion which is the T-wave in the ECG. The T-wave represents ventricular relaxation (repolarization).

We can summarise these waves as follows:-

1.P-wave-Atrial contraction

2.P-Q interval-A brief pause at the AV-node

3.Q-wave-The brief preparation of the ventricular muscles to overshoot

4.R-Wave-Ventricular Contraction, the overshoot phase.

5.S-wave-after the systole brief repolarization followed by a diastolic depolarization to reach the isoelectric line.

6.S-T-interval-The resting phase before the ventricle relaxes.

7.T-wave:-Repolarization of the ventricles followed by the diastolic depolarization of the atria for the next P-wave cycle.

8.T-P interval-The The isoelectric line.

A brief Terminology:

1.Depolarization-means contraction of the muscles

2.Repolarization-means relaxation of the muscle.

3.Systole-Ventricular contraction (atrial relaxation)-R-wave (QRS -Complex)

4.Diastole-Atrial contraction -P-wave

5.Ventricular relaxation-T- wave

                                          Continued in the next 

A brief explanation regarding to 'Depolarization' and 'Repolarization'.

MELATONIN-HORMONE OF SLEEP-CORRECTING SLEEP DISORDERS

  SLEEP DISORDERS AND TREATMENTS

                           A good night's sleep indicates that our body is in good health.

Insomnia is the condition in which a person is hardly getting sleep.

Generally, our brain controls all activities of our body including wake and sleep.

The pineal gland is an endocrine situated deep in the centre of the two halves of our brain.

Melatonin is synthesized by the pineal gland from the neuronal excitatory hormone known as 5-hydroxytryptophan (5HT3) or serotonin. Melatonin is chemically known as N-acetyl-5-methoxy tryptophane or roughly be called as acetyl methoxy tryptophane.

Melatonin is not a sleeping medicine like some antihistamines, gabaergic, or anticholinergic. But it helps a person to fall asleep by induction and regulating sleep patterns like the circadian clock.

When darkness fell the room our natural circadian rhythm reaches the mood of asleep. This is induced by our third eye known as the pineal gland by releasing melatonin into our blood.

Melatonin helps our body to identify the time for sleep when lights went off and darkness gets in.

Melatonin helps our body to prepare for sleep by relaxation, decreased respiration, and body temperature, yet it is not a sleeping drug. Melatonin does not keep you dull or sleepy.

When the sun rises in the morning our eyes detect light and our third eye the pineal gland reduces the secretion of melatonin. Melatonin preparations are available in the market as food supplements.

One can use it with the following precautions. Because overdosage and overtime use may produce side effects.

Melatonin can be used safely for 1 year for continuous use. After that one should put at least a three-month gap.

Melatonin can be dosed from 05 to 10 milligrams according to the person's needs.

05 mg may give a person to sleep for 1 hour while 10 mg may give you 7 to 10 hours of sleep. A low dose is always safe.

Melatonin is having other advantages also such as fat loss, muscle gain, improved metabolism, and muscle protection. It prevents muscle waste.

Melatonin does not keep a person asleep but it will induce sleep.

On overdose melatonin actually, reset your circadian clock and your sleep pattern will be changed.

The Science of Sleep:-

Our body has its own sense of rhythms known as circadian rhythmic cycles in a 24 hour day time. These cycles are involved by the secretions of various chemicals and activities to schedule our body's various daily programs such as what to do and when to do. These circadian cycles are actually known as the Mind in Mind. This In Mind has to be prepared or to be consulted by our mind before scheduling any program.

For example, if a person has got an engagement in the morning for that he set his alarm to wake him up at 6 o'clock in the morning. But when the alarm rings at 6 a.m the person cannot get up and his mind and mood will not cooperate with him to get up to attend the scheduled program.

This is because his mind did not consult or programmed the In Mind or the circadian clock accordingly.

Melatonin is one of the chemicals involved in the circadian rhythms to schedule our sleep time when darkness falls. Melatonin tells our body to go to bed because it is time for sleep when your bedroom becomes dark.

This circadian cycle starts from the brain's suprachiasmatic nucleus which is situated at the centre of the brain. At the sunrise in the morning when light fills the bedroom the suprachiasmatic nucleus sends circadian signals down to the spine. The body sets the program ready for the day. When the light falls on the eyes the retina sends back the signals to the suprachiasmatic nucleus which in turn commands the pineal gland to reduce melatonin release. In the evening when the light dims and darkness falls on the retina again signals go to the pineal gland through the suprachiasmatic nucleus to increase the melatonin release into the blood and the cerebrospinal fluids. The presence of melatonin attains its peak at midnight. Normal sleep starts. This is the science of sleep. Any disturbance to this science may result in normal sleep disorders.

Side Effects: -Side effects are few as follows.

1.Headache

2.Short Depression

3.Sleepiness, somnambulant

4.Dizziness

5.Stomach pain

6.Hypothermia

7.Bedwetting in Children

8.Day time drowsiness in adults.

Do not drive at least for 4 hours after taking melatonin.
Merits:-
Melatonin is safer than clonazepam in patients with Parkinson Disease
Melatonin is graded as a food supplement and not a sedative by the FDA because it works entirely in a different pathway.
Melatonin by itself is a derivative of serotonin a hormone of peace and an excitatory neurotransmitter. Sedatives and sleeping pills are working through Gamma Amino Butyric Acid (GABA) pathway which is a neuronal inhibitory pathway.
Of course, serotonin is an excitatory neurotransmitter it is not as powerful as the catecholamines and hence it is not hormone of stress.
Similarly, serotonin has some inhibitory effects on some nerve synapses but not as strong as GABA and hence it would not produce much drowsiness and sedation.
Comparisons:-
GABA-ergic sleeping medicines like benzodiazepines such as alprazolam,midazolam,nitrazepam and diazepam may cause more sedation and respiratory depressions.
GABA-ergic neuroleptics like Gabapentin, Pregabalin are all producing fatal drowsiness and sedation
In addition, all of the above drugs can cause addiction.
But melatonin is very safe and free from all the above drawbacks as it is based on serotonin

Contraindications:-
Do not take sedatives like diazepam or zolpidem with melatonin
Do not take omeprazole like PPI medicines.
Do not take anticoagulants like aspirin, clopidogrel, or warfarin along with melatonin.
Do not take diclofenac like pain killers along with melatonin.
Consult with a neuro specialist before taking this medicine.

SELF HEALTH CHECK-UP-CHECK YOUR B.P AT HOME BY YOUR SELF-II

HOW TO USE MANUAL B.P METERS

Both manual and electronic meters use oscillometric methods to measure B.P.
There are two types of manual meters
1.Aneroid
2.Mercury

But they are quite different when we handle them. Digital electronic meters are very sensitive and need many precautions to have precise readings. They need repeated measurements to get satisfactory results. But mechanical and manual meters such as mercury and aneroid meters are very convenient in handling and needless precautions to get results satisfactorily with a single measurement. In this method patient's movements do not disturb the accuracy. Albeit their easiness to handle they have their own disadvantages.

span style="font-size: x-large;">When using manual meters one should be familiar with the so-called KOROTKOFF sounds that can be heard through a stethoscope. This is the correct auscultatory method of B.P measurement.

In the following diagram there are 5 sounds that can be heard which are represented by 5 blue unequal straight lines.

During measurements distinguishing these sounds are very important to get an accurate result. This can be possible through experiences of using a stethoscope.

Method

Preparations for the measurement are similar to the electronic methods with relaxation and easiness while sitting on a chair.

The table height is not very important but it must be inconvenient.

It is not a must to keep the cuff sensor in a straight line with the heart.

1. Put the arm with fingers relaxed on the table.

2. Place the cuff around your elbow and tight it.

3. Place the bulb of the stethoscope on the brachial artery of your upper arm-elbow joint and inflate the cuff to just above your assessed systolic pressure. Allow the cuff to deflate slowly.

4. Carefully watch the five Korotkoff sounds as follows:-

          1.The first clear weak sound that slowly increases

           2.The second stronger and clear sound but still somewhat weaker than the 3rd sound.

           3.The clear strong sound that approaches the peak. At this point stop the deflation and note down the reading-Systolic Pressure.

           4. Allow to further deflate and note down the sound gets weaker and weaker

           5. The final fifth swashing and murmuring sound follows and disappears at a point. Stop the deflation and note down the reading-The diastolic Pressure

In this manual method Pulse, reading cannot be measured.

SELF HEALTH CHECK-UP-CHECK YOUR B.P AT HOME BY YOUR SELF-I

KNOW HOW TO MEASURE B.P BY YOURSELF

    Our overall health is based on many parameters out of which blood pressure is one of them. Our daily blood pressure varies every second according to our daily activities and situations which we face every day. Emotional environments at home as well as in our workplace play an important role to deal with our normal blood pressure. Social activities such as sports, games, friendships, and enmities play another role to deal with our blood pressure.

For an employer the B.P. rises and falls whenever he deals with his business's profits and losses.

A student's B.P.is highly sensitive when he is in the examination hall.

A criminal's B.P.goes beyond the control when he is on the run and as well as when he is caught up.

The B.P flares up during when a criminal faces his death sentence at the gallows.

On the other side the abnormal fluctuations in the blood pressure affect many of our body organs and their normal functions.

Important organs such as our brain, kidney, liver eyes, and our visceral organs such as our digestive organs are all affected by the variation in the blood pressure.

Catecholamines such as adrenaline, noradrenaline, and dopamine activities predominate when a person is at stress. His B.P.rises, his heartbeat increases, and the blood supply to various organs such as the brain, kidney, and liver get reduced and finally our overall health is jeopardized.

Hence every day or at least weekly once checking your pressure is very important to lead a healthy life.

There are many types of B.P. apparatuses are available in the market to check your B.P at home by yourself.

They are manual, semi-automatic, and automatic.

They are mechanical and as well as electronic.

Electronic and mechanical instruments both use oscillometric methods.

An oscillometric method is one which measures blood pressure oscillations at the area in which blood circulation is blocked or cuffed and released. The area is usually at the upper arm or wrist. When a cuff is placed around the upper arm or wrist and inflated to tight around the arm the blood gets occluded in that area. When the cuff is deflated the blood begins to flow again by making the walls of the artery on that area more vulnerable to oscillate which is more pronounced to measure either by digitally or by mechanical sounds which can be heard by a stethoscope.
There are two methods of assessing your B.P.
1.Palpable Method in which you can assess your systolic pressure by counting the number of palpitation at the wrist artery exactly below the inner side of your thump. But by this method you cannot assess the diastolic pressure. Palpable methods can be done at the wrist radial artery.
2.Oscillatory or Auscultatory Method in which both the systolic and diastolic pressures can be measured satisfactorily by using instruments. This method can be performed conveniently on both the wrist radial artery as well as the arm-elbow brachial artery.

Preparations For B.P.Measurements:-

                           

Get ready with your instrument by removing it from its package. Fit the inflating cuff with its plugged with the monitor properly. The monitor should be connected with the A/C electrical outlet. Ensure the correct voltage mentioned at the bottom of your instrument. Otherwise use batteries.

The best time to measure B.P.is morning soon or one hour after you get up from your bed before taking tea or coffee on an empty stomach. Morning pressure is an important indicator of your normal health. Morning B.P.measurement can be comfortably done if you have your own B.P.kit at your home otherwise you must be an inpatient in a hospital.

2.Sit in a chair comfortably and rest your back at the chair. Relax for 10 minutes and keep your two feet apart from each other.

3. The monitor must be placed comfortably on a table so that the height of the table should be just below your heart or chest and the monitor should be on a straight line with your heart.

4.If you are a right-handed man use your left hand for measurements and vice versa

5. Put the cuff around your arm properly and tight it around the arm so that your index finger can be inserted. Too much tightness or too loose may give you wrong readings. The stethoscope bulb is in a straight line with your heart.

6. Again relax for five minutes. The room should be properly ventilated and should be calm. Avoid speaking or hearing music.

7. Press the start button. If your instrument is automatic it inflates automatically and when it reaches the point above your assessed systolic pressure it stops and deflates immediately. When it completes deflation the monitor will show three readings. The upper reading is the systolic pressure which should be normally 110 to 120 m.m.

The middle reading is the diastolic pressure which should be around 75 to 85 m.m

The lower reading is the pulse measurement which should be around 65 to 75.

If your instrument is not automatic inflate the cuff manually by a bulb pump just above your assessed systolic pressure and allow it to deflate.

8. Repeat it two times with half an hour gaps.

9. Take an average reading
10.If you take at least 5 readings that is better. Out of the 5 readings assess the B.P as follows.
For examples out of five tests you may get 5 readings as follows:-
110/80;130/80;130/85;120/80;130/80
You can assess the correct reading out of the five as follows:-
Mode:-The most frequently occur reading-130/80
Median:-The middle reading or average of the middle readings-130/80
The Mean:-Average readings of all the five readings-124/81

What are systolic and Diastolic Pressures?

Systolic pressure occurs when your left ventricle squeezed and loads the blood into the aorta- the main trunk of the artery- the afterload scenery.

Diastolic pressure occurs when the ventricles relax and to receive purified blood from the pulmonary vein.-The preload scenery.
There are many types of B.P kits are available. You can choose from a standard company.

MEDICAL BITS-10-DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

 RESEARCH BITS ON YOUR DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

1.GUT BACTERIA

The researches in The Babraham Institute in Cambridge, U.K., has revealed that it is possible to rejuvenate the older gut immune system at an older age.

Age can slowly destruct the gut's immune system by slowly changing the active gut microbiome and other flora from active to inactive state. Hence our digestive power is slowly declined when a person gets older.

The research shows that this can be prevented by transplanting feces from the younger ones to the older ones. The study is still on the table and performed in mice. But the result through light on the hope in future the fecal transplant can be successfully done from one to another to rejuvenate the older digestive system to be activated.

Mice are having the habit of nibbling each other's droppings. When an old and young mice are locked together in a cage they found that the older mouse gets more activated disregarding its age. This they found its nibbling of the younger one's droppings.

But this is not possible in human beings as a human has no habits nibbling droppings. Hence the scientists are trying to device a convenient method of fecal transplant.

2. COMMON ULCER Drugs -Linked to Heart Problems

Many drugs used to relieve acid reflexes, ulcers, and heartburn are found to have links with many fatal incidents including heart attacks.

Recent research conducted by Dr.Ziyad Ali et al from Washington University School Of Medicine, in St.Louis MO, and published in the journal BMJ has revealed that those who use Omeprazole, like PPI drugs and Ranitidine like H2 receptor blocker drugs are statistically 7% to 9% more likely to have heart diseases.

Most of the patients who use these drugs are advised to use these drugs unnecessarily for a long period.

PPIs and H-2 receptor inhibitors are available as on the counter (OTC) drugs in pharmacies. If necessary they can be used for a short period not over 10 days. For chronic use one should get proper doctor's advice.
The study continues to state that chronic use of PPIs and H-2 receptor antagonists leads to other fatal comorbidities including kidney and liver damages.

Examples:-

1.PPI drugs:-

a)Omeprazole,(Omez)
b)Pantoprazole,(Protonix)
c)Rabeprazole(Aciphex)
d)Esomeprazole (Nexium)

2.H-2 receptor Inhibitors:-

a)Cimetidine (Tagamet)
b)Ranitidine (Ranidine, Zantac,)
c)Famotidine (Pepcid)

3.HEARTBURN AND NAUSEA

There are many causatives for the above symptoms. Some of them are given below.

1.Acid Indigestion-Gastritis-In which there is inflammation at the inner linings of the stomach which causes gastric irritation and vomiting.

2.Esophageal Reflex 
3.Zollinger-Ellison's Disease-Stomach Cancer
4.Drugs of abuse such as alcohol, amphetamine, opium, cocaine, and marijuana.
5.Certain pain killers such as ibuprofen, diclofenac, naproxen phenoxybenzamine which causes ulcerations.

4.AUTISM AND GUT MICROBIOME:-

A recent study has revealed that a change gut bacterial flora can largely influence the autistic behavior of a child.

MEDICAL BITS-9-PSYCHOTHERAPY

KNOW YOUR BLUES-HOW TO GET OUT FROM THAT

1. METFORMIN-AN ANTIDIABETIC CAN HELP YOU TO GET RID OF ANXIETY AND DEPRESSION-RESEARCH:-

Diabetes Mellitus-2 a condition of metabolic defects in which insulin resistance plays an important role. Insulin resistance makes the body improperly handle or metabolize glucose and the result is high sugar level in the blood.

Usually insulin resistance occurs due to hormonal imbalances in the CNS. Stimulant hormones such as acetylcholine,nor-adrenaline, and dopamine overpowers the other hormones especially serotonin- the hormone of peace.

Because of this majority of the diabetics are more irritant, anxious, and depressed.

Research by French scientists published in The Journal of Neuroscience states that metformin a biguanide antidiabetic drug can dramatically help the person to fight the blues and get rid of them.

The research conducted in mice which are fed with high fatty diet to simulate insulin resistance in them. High fat produces branched amino acids in the blood which block the entry of the amino acid tryptophan to enter into the brain.

Tryptophan is an essential amino acid necessary for the brain to prepare serotonin (5-hydroxytryptophan) -the hormone of peace and happiness.

The researchers have found out that metformin the anti-diabetic drug prevent the formations of branched-chain amino acids and thereby make more tryptophan to cross the blood-brain barrier. Thus it helps the brain to prepare enough serotonin the hormone of peace in diabetic patients.

2.ELECTROCONVULSIVE THERAPY FOR SUICIDAL THOUGHTS:-

A research by Dr.Youssef et al a psychiatrist from the Medical College of Georgia at the Augusta University specializing in Electrical Convulsive Therapy have found out the ECT with low amplitude can relive and drive out suicidal ideas without affecting cognition and memory.

3. LEARNED HELPLESSNESS-SYMPTOMS AND TREATMENTS:-

Psychotic disorders are many which lead to many mental diseases such as schizophrenia, anxiety, Obsessive and Compulsive Disorders (OCD), and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Learned Helplessness is a pro depressive stage if it persists chronically in a person may lead to serious mental disorders such as OCD.

If a person is continuously exposed to painful events he becomes adaptive to the situation by losing his confidence. He will allow all stress full events to happen with a sense of no outlets are available to solve the problems. He will sadly allow all the abusive events without any motivation to solve the problems even though there are solutions.

< His mind is full of negative thoughts and becomes depressive. This is known as Learned Helplessness L.H.)

If a child is continuously abused within his family and by the society he may develop adulthood L.H.

later.

Symptoms include,

1.low self-esteem,

2.Low expectations for the goal

3.Slow motivation.Always dull.

4. Not look for help even though help is available

5. Ascribing loss of success to inability and luck.

Therapies include,

1. Try to get help, support, and encouragement from friends and beloved ones.

2. Believe that you are not alone

3.Meditations

4. Devote and submit yourself to the belief of God.

5.Learn ways to keep you busy and encouragements

6. Avoid negative feelings.

7. Avoid stressful situations by engaging in reading writing and other hobbies.

8. Have a good night's sleep.

HIGH SODIUM-HYPERNATREMIA-II-CONTINUED

HYPERNATREMIA-DRUG ABUSES AND OTHER CAUSES

Hypernatremia occurs due to the improper use of certain drugs such as osmotic diuretics.

Osmotic diuretics are drugs producing diuresis to excrete more urea nitrogen and glucose and competitively inhibit the excretion of sodium and water. They increase the blood and extracellular water and sodium level and thereby produce hypernatremia.
Other medications such as anabolic steroids(Durabolin), ACTH (Adreno Cortico Tropic Hormone) and female sex hormones also produce hypernatremia 

The best examples for osmotic diuretics are mannitol and isosorbide.
The concept of osmotic diuretics is to produce high osmotic pressure between blood capillaries and kidney tubules and thereby suck more solvent towards the tubules for excretion. But in this case urea, glucose and blood urea nitrogen are the solutes that suck the water towards the tubules and thereby raise the mineral content of the blood including sodium.
Glucocorticoids on the contrary inhibit the excretion of the solvent along with sodium by the kidneys and thereby raise the blood volume and sodium.

Those who have diabetes mellitus, kidney failure with high blood urea nitrogen(BUN) should avoid the use of mannitol and isosorbide in their B.P.drugs profile.

Mannitol is usually recommended by the eye specialist to reduce intraocular pressure(IOP) in the treatment of glaucoma. Similarly both mannitol and isosorbide are drugs of choice to reduce intracranial pressure for B.P. patients. Before starting with this drug you must submit your full medical history including diabetes and kidney problems.
Other medications such as sodium chloride (table salt), and sodium bicarbonate (Baking salt) also can raise your blood and extracellular sodium level if used in high quantity.
Chronic use of corticosteroids such as aldosterone(Aldomet) can raise blood sodium levels by increasing potassium loss with the exchange of sodium by the distal tubule of the kidneys.
Glucocorticoids such as hydrocortisone and cortisol also produce hypernatremia by suppressing the secretion of ADH by the brain.
Male and female sex hormones can also produce hypernatremia

Foods with high sodium contents:-

Foods such as salty foods and beverages such as Soup, and vegetable juice
Instant puddings,
Shrimps
Cottage cheese
Salads
Pizzas.
These foods should be avoided if you are positively diagnosed with hypernatremia.

Symptoms:-

1. The main symptoms are lethargy and confusion verily in the case of Diabetes Insipidus.

2. Craving for salt is one of the symptoms that you have high sodium in your body.

3.Extreme thirsty which indicates you have high osmotic pressure between your lower intracellular fluid volume and higher extracellular fluid volume.

4.Frequent Urinations

5.Swellings

6.Episodes of Headaches

7. Hesitate to take food in spite of hungry.

Diagnosis:-

Blood and urine tests.

Treatments:-

For acute cases slow intravenous drip of 5% glucose.

For chronic cases intravenous drip of half-normal saline (0.045%)