A Cartoon Analogy to Explain Protein Synthesis in Eukaryotes:-

 CENTRAL DOGMA IN EUKARYOTES-CARTOON ANALOGY

A CARTOON ANALOGY

The transcription and the translation, the two major phases of the Central Dogma of a eukaryotic cell can be made easy and simplified to understand with the above shown analogous cartoon figure.

In the eukaryotes, unlike in the prokaryotes, the transcription phase occurs within the nucleus.

It is analogous to taking a copy of a particular cooking recipe from the original cookery guide book.

The original cookbook is the entire DNA chain embossed in the chromosome strand.

The particular page that contains the recipe to be transcribed is a gene portion of the DNA strand.

The copy making machine is the enzyme, DNA dependent  RNA Polymerase (RNAP).

The transcribed raw copy before the proofreading is the immature mRNA.

The proof-reader is the snRNA

After the proofreading (splicing) the matured mRNA swim out from the nucleus into the cytosol for translation.

The translation phase occurs in the cytosol.

In translation, there are many types of utensils that fit to bring suitable raw material to the cooker.

The utensils are the tRNAs

The raw materials are the amino acids

The cooker is the ribosome

The finished product is the protein molecule.

 

NINE ESSENTIAL AMINOACIDS

  ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS

  We have studied that protein synthesis is necessary for our body to maintain good health and energy. All our body cells are synthesizing various necessary proteins on a daily routine basis except a few which synthesize some proteins as per the body's need.

Amino acids are the basic molecules to build up proteins. There are twenty amino acids that are essential to synthesize various proteins.

Out of the 20 amino acids, our body can make only 11 amino acids. The other 9 amino acids must be supplied to our body either through food or through medicines only.

The 9 amino acids with their respective mRNA codons are the essential amino acids that the body cannot synthesize and to be supplied to the body through diet or medicines.

Generally, proteinous foods especially, meats, milk, eggs, soybeans, nuts, seeds, dry fruits are all rich in essential amino acids.

All amino acids are used to build proteins

There are additional two amino acids namely selenocysteine and pyrrolysine that do not have codons but they can be incorporated into the polypeptide chain by tRNAs holding complementary codons to the stop codon in the mRNA. Proteins containing selenocysteine are enzymes like glutathione peroxidases, tetraiodothyronine 5'-deiodinases, thioredoxin reductases, formate dehydrogenases, etc.  Proteins containing Pyrrolysine are rare can be present in archaea. 

The 9 essential amino acids are,

1.Lysine                                  

2.Leucine              

3.Isoleucine

4.Methionine

5.Phenylalanine

6.Threonine

7.Tryptophane

8.Histidine

9.Valine

Lysine containing foods 

Lysine is used especially to synthesize carnitine a group of essential substances like L-carnitine which give energy to the body. L-carnitine improves insulin sensitivity to the tissue cells.

The followings are the lysine-rich foods:-

1. Mutton, Beef, Chicken

2.Permesan Cheese (A hard full-fat Italian cheese)

3.Cod Fish and Sardines

4.Eggs

5.Soybeans, especially the curd made out of soy milk (Tofu)

6.Sprulina (A blue-green algae, a cyanobacterium belongs to Arthrospira Platensis).

7.Fenugreek Seed (வெந்தயம்)

Leucine-Rich Foods

Leucine improves protein synthesis in our body which compensates and prevents body muscle wasting.

It has been shown that leucine improves insulin production and secretions.

The followings are the Leucine-rich foods

1.Concentrated Whey Protein

2.Soy Protein concentrated

3.Pea Protein

4.Soy bean

5.Hemp seeds hulled

6.Beef

7.Salmon Fish

8.Wheat Germ

9.Almonds

10.Broiled or Fried Chicken thigh.

Isoleucine Rich Foods

Isoleucine helps our body, by regulating protein and fat metabolism, increasing protein synthesis.decreasing muscle waste.

The followings are the isoleucine rich foods:-

1.Beef

2.Veal

3.Lamb

4.Chicken

5.Wheat germ

6.Legumes

7.Seeds

8.Bakery Yeast.

Methionine

Methionine is used to prevent liver damage by paracetamol overdose. 

The followings are the methionine rich foods.

1.Ground Turkey

2.Beef

3.Tuna

4.Soya curd (Tofu)

5.Milk

6.Brazil nuts

7.Large White Beans

Phenylalanine

Phenylalanine, in addition to its effect on protein synthesis it is used to synthesize molecules that exchange signals between various body parts. Also, it is used in many skin disorders, depressions, and pain.

The followings are phenylalanine rich foods

1.Milk

2.Eggs

3.Cheese

4.Nuts

5.Chicken

6.Beans

7.Fish

Threonine

Threonine other than its role in protein synthesis it is used in nerve disorders like spinal spasticity, multiple sclerosis, familial spastic paraparesis, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

The followings are the threonine rich foods:-

1.Cottage cheese

2.Chicken

3.Fish

4.Lentils

5.Lean beef

6.Soy

7.Nuts

Tryptophane

In addition to its role in protein synthesis, tryptophane also used to synthesis brain signaling molecules. The brain converts tryptophan to 5-hydroxytryptophan (serotonin) that improves our mood and sleep. Tryptophan-rich foods:-

1.Chocolate

2.Oats

3.Dried Dates

4.Milk, Yogurt, and Cottage cheese

5.Mutton, Beef

6.Eggs, and Poultry

7.Fish

8.Sesame, Chickpeas

9.Almonds and Peanuts

10.Sunlower seeds, Pumpkin seeds, buckwheat 

and Spirulina.

Histidine

In addition to its role in protein-synthesis, histidine is used in Rheumatoid Arthritis, Allergy, Ulcers, Anemia, and Kidney failure.

Histidine rich foods,

1.Poultry

2.Whole wheat grains

Valine

In addition to its role in the synthesis of protein,  valine improves muscle growth, muscle regeneration, and energy production. The followings are the valine rich foods.

1.Soy

2.Cheese

3.Peanuts

4.Mushroom

5.Beef, Chicken, Mutton.

APPLICATIONS OF GENETIC ENGINEERING-PROTEIN SYNTHESIS IN EUKARYOTES

       WONDERS OF GENE TECHNOLOGY-GENE EXPRESSION OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS IN EUKARYOTES

Gene Technology is the altering of genetic materials by direct interventions, biomolecular behaviors, and changing genetic processes, to manufacture new medicines or to improve the functions of existing organisms.

The interesting part of genetics is how genes control the cell functions, the body's height weight, complexion the resemblance of a child to its parents, cell functions, various enzymes, antibodies, through the cell protein synthesis.

Proteins are large macromolecules made out of polypeptides that have major roles in various important functions to keep our bodies healthy. 

For example, insulin is a protein to regulate our body's glucose metabolism.

A protein is known as 'ferritin' that helps the body to store iron in the liver, marrow, and spleen.

Antibodies protecting us from infections are all various kinds of proteins.

Most of our body enzymes are made out of proteins.

Actin is the protein envelope that gives flexibility to our cells.

Our body cells contain many organelles including cell nucleus, nucleolus, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria that are all made of proteins.

Each and every cell of our body is a powerful factory of protein synthesis. The process involves central dogma, and gene expression to result in protein synthesis.

Synthesis of Proteins in Eukaryotic Cells:-

Fig-1

A simple eukaryotic cell has been shown above (Fig-1) that differs from the prokaryotic cell by having a defined nucleus and nucleolus. All multicellular organisms including human beings are eukaryotes. 

Transcription

The first step of protein synthesis is the transcription that is carried out in the nucleus. "The codon copying of the protein-coding genes by using DNA as a template into an mRNA which contains the message to prepare a particular protein is known as Transcription.

This is similar to copying a single recipe for a particular food from the original book of recipes.

In the nucleus, the genetic material presents as a chromosome that is a tightly twisted thread made of double-stranded DNA. Every strand of DNA is stitched with the basic units known as the nucleotides. There are four types of nucleotides used to stitch the DNA strand. They are labeled as adenine (A), guanine (G), thymine (T), and cytosine (C) nucleotides.

Fig-2

The four types of nucleotides are having the structures as shown in the figure (Fig-2)

Adenine and Guanine are known as purines

Thymine and cytosine are known as pyrimidines.

Nucleotides are formed and bonded as follows:-

Adenine and thymine nucleotides are coupled with double hydrogen bonds and guanine and cytosine nucleotides are coupled with triple hydrogen bonds in a DNA strand. All these nucleotides are stitched in as a strand fitted on a backbone contains a deoxyribose sugar ring bonded alternatively with a phosphate ion to the 5th carbon atom of one sugar ring on the upper side and to the 3rd carbon atom of another sugar ring at the lower side. See Fig-2)

There are billions of nucleotide units in each of our human body cells embedded in the chromosomes.

These nucleotides are grouped as triplets known as codons like ACC, ATC, ATG, TAG, TAC, and so on of a total of 64 codons and each represents one amino acid. Amino acids are the basic units of protein and hence to synthesize a particular protein there are a number of amino acids are required. To do this job a group of codons is to be transcribed from a particular portion of the chromosomes embedded by the DNA thread. That particular portion is known as Gene.

Fig-3

There are 23 pairs of a total of 46 chromosomes in every cell of our human body.

 Transcription:-

Fig-4

A portion of DNA is stretched from the chromosome out. An enzyme is known as DNA dependant RNA polymerase that unwinds the double-stranded DNA apart with the help of some cofactors. One of the unwinded single strands of the DNA (Template strand) is used by the RNA polymerase to transcribe the DNA codes to mRNA as shown in Fig-5 below.

Fig-5

DNA nucleotide sequence is arranged from tail to head (3' to 5') and the RNA polymerase moves and reads the codons from head to tail (5' to 3') to prepare mRNA.

Fig-5A

Thymine in DNA is replaced by Uracil in mRNA by the RNA polymerase without any change in the genetic information.

This is because thymine and uracil both are pyrimidines and have similar structures. Thymine is methyl uracil that needs more energy to move. Since DNA is unmovable and fixed within the nucleus but RNAs are mobile and must carry the genetic copy of DNA to do their job outside the nucleus they must contain lightweight uracil instead of thymine to save much energy.

Once the raw mRNA is prepared in the nucleolus they contain uncoded portions also. These portions are known as introns that are cut and trimmed out and the rest of the coded portions are joined together as an exon and exit the nucleus into the cytoplasm.

Translation:- 

Fig-6

This is the next step in the process of Central Dogma or gene expression or protein synthesis. While the step of transcription is carried out inside the nucleolus of the nucleus, the step of translation is carried out in the cytoplasm outside the nucleus.

The mRNA exited out from the nucleus reaches one of the scattered numerous numbers of mini organelles known as ribosomes embedded in the hard endoplasmic reticulum as well as free unbounded in the entire cytoplasm.

Ribosomes are tiny organelles made of 60% rRNA (ribosomal RNA) and 40% proteins. This is the protein-cooking stove. It cooks protein according to the DNA codon recipe copied in the mRNA with the help of tRNA (transfer-RNA). The tRNAs contain anticodons to read the mRNA recipe and bring the necessary amino acid ingredients to be cooked into proteins.

 The rRNA present in the ribosome cooker bonds together the amino acids into a peptide chain. 

The tRNAs start to read the mRNA from head to tail (5' to 3') direction. The first codon at the start point in the mRNA is mostly AUG that represents the amino acid methionine (Met). In the end, there is a stop codon that does not represent any amino acid with which the cooking process ends.

There are three stop codons namely, UAA, UAG, UGA is available. Anyone of them can stop the protein synthesis process.

There are 64 codons formed by the nucleotide triplets in the main DNA template. Out of that 61 codons are represented by 20 amino acids. No two amino acids are indicated by the same codon but one amino acid may have been indicated by different codons. (e.g)

Glycine is indicated by the codons GUU, GUC, GUA, GUG.

Similarly, leucine is indicated by six codons namely UUA, UUG, CUU, CUC, CUA, and CUG.

How to remember the codons and the corresponding amino acids in an easy way will be dealt with in a separate post.

Translocation: 

Protein synthesis is a cyclic process. The first tRNA that brought methionine the first amino acid come into the ribosome's A-compartment followed by moving into the P-compartment and locate the aminoacid by decoding the AUG codon in the mRNA strand by its on code UAC and after that empty tRNA moves the exit E-compartment and exit from there. By that time the ribosome moves one codon downstream to locate the next tRNA to moe in from the A site to the P site compartment to locate the amino acid which it carries and the process is going on up to the stop codon reached. During this process, one by one amino acids is spindled together as polypeptides and released out from the ribosome. The polypeptides finally polymerized together to form the final shape of a protein. These proteins are sent to the proper locations within the cell or outside the cell for utilization.

SUMMARY:-

Fig-7

In the eukaryotic cells, the protein-coding genes express their protein-synthesizing action by the above equation (Fig-7) 

DNA, the hard copy of the whole cookbook is present inside the nucleus as chromosomes. The enzyme RNA polymerase locates the gene and reads its codons for synthesizing a particular protein. It copies the codons as mRNA. This copying process is known as the Transcription. 

The mRNA swims out of the nucleus like a warm with a head and tail into the cytoplasmic colloidal fluid.

There are numerous numbers of organelles known as ribosomes scattered freely in the entire cytoplasm as well as in the endoplasmic reticulum outside the nucleus.

The ribosomes are of 80S unit which is divided into a large 60s and 40s subunits. When they unite together they will look like a hand with a clenched fist. But always they remain separated. The ribosomes contain 60% rRNA and 40% proteins. The small 40s subunit unctions to carry the mRNA on its upper platform and facilitate its codons to be readable. The large 60s subunit functions to receive the tRNA and helps it to process with bonding and fixing the aminoacids blocks brought by the tRNAs. (Fig-6). 

The mRNA enters on the upper platform of the small 40s subunit ribosome on a longitudinal direction with all its codons projecting upwards. The larger 60s subunit of the ribosome receives a tRNA with an anticodon UAC at its bottom tail end and the corresponding amino acid methionine (see Fig-6) (M) at its aminoacyl head in its A cage. After this, the tRNA moves into the P-cage where it reads the mRNA code AUG in 5' to 3' direction while the mRNA moves in the opposite 3' to 5' direction (Fig-6)

The anticodon UAC decode the codon AUG and the amino acid (M) block is removed from the tRNA head and fixed at the top of the ribosome. The emptied tRNA moves into the E cage and from there it exits out. The process continues until at least 20 to 20 amino acids are bonded by rRNA to build-up into polypeptides. As the amino acid blocks are received the rRNA translocates them in order as the first received is on the second, and the second received on the third, and so on (Fig-6).

Finally, a set of amino acid blocks are stitched to form a polypeptide and further processed into a protein molecule.

Thus synthesized proteins are either utilized intracellularly for various cell unctions or extracellularly various body functions.

The following table gives the synthetic sites and usage of some proteins:

Fig-8

A Cartoon Analogy to Explain Protein Synthesis in Eukaryotes:-

FUNDAMENTALS OF MOLECULAR BIOTECHNOLOGY-WHAT IS A GENE?

 GENE TECHNOLOGY -CONCEPTS

The main purpose of this article is everybody has a right to have a piece of minimum knowledge in molecular biology as in this pandemic COVID-19 situation, people should have at least an idea of what is going on around them to sight a solution for this adamant and strange microbiome.

Molecular biotechnology or Molecular Biology are interchangeable names to the branch of Biology, which mainly deals with the molecular behavior, changes, techniques of nucleic acid replications transcriptions and translations, and genetical modifications,etc.etc.

What are Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cells?

Prokaryotic cells are cells that have no defined nuclei.

e.g. Bacteria and other unicellular organisms.

Eukaryotic cells are cells that have a defined nucleus. (e.g.) human beings and other multicellular organisms.

What are the nucleic acids?

These acids are the basics of the nucleus of a cell whether the cell is prokaryotic or eukaryotic.

 RNA:-

Fig-1

Ribo Nucleic Acid. The chemical structure contains a ribose sugar attached with a purine or pyrimidine moiety at its 1st carbon position and a phosphate moiety at its 3rd carbon position. The other end of the phosphate moiety is attached with the 5th carbon position of another ribose sugar with a nitrogen base attached with its 1st carbon position. Thus a chain of ribose sugars with nitrogen bases attached by phosphate bonds is fabricated as a single RNA strand. (see Fig-1)

 DNA:-

Fig-2A

Deoxy Ribo Nucleic Acid. The chemical structure contains deoxyribose sugars attached with nitrogen bases bonded with phosphate bridges to form DNA strands. But unlike RNA, DNA is mostly available in double-stranded form.

The pentose sugar in the DNA is deoxygenated at the C'-2 position to have two hydrogen ions (one oxygen is removed) to it (H-C-H) as in the Fig-2A above. That is why it is known as deoxyribose and is more stable than ribose as the later contains oxygen at C'-2 position as (H-C-OH)

Each strand is composed of a deoxyribose ring carrying a nitrogen base (ADENINE) at the 1st carbon position attached with another deoxyribose ring with a phosphate bridge at the 5th carbon position at one end and the third carbon position at the other end. (Fig-2A)

Both RNA and DNA strands fabricated in a similar manner except one of the nitrogen bases namely thymine in DNA is replaced by uracil in RNA. Moreover, RNA is mostly occurring as a single strand whereas DNA is occurring as a double-strand spun together in a helical manner. (Fig-2B)

Fig-2B

What is a nucleotide? Nucleotides are the fundamental units of a nucleic acid strand. Every RNA and DNA strands are composed of nucleotides.

Fig-2C

Nucleotides are formed by the following equations:

A pentose back-bone+ a nitrogen base ⟶Nucleoside

A nucleoside + phosphate bonds⟶Nucleotide

A single nucleotide can be formulated as follows:

As in Fig- 2C, there are 5 nucleosides each with a pentose sugar backbone and each carrying nitrogen bases indicated by colored bands bonded together to form polynucleotides.

A pentose sugar + phosphate+ a nitrogen base.

Fig-2D

In RNA nucleotide the pentose sugar is ribose and one of the five nitrogen bases is uracil while in the DNA chain the pentose sugar is deoxyribose and one of the nitrogen bases is thymine which replaces uracil in the RNA chain. The phosphate moiety is bonding between pentoses to form the RNA or DNA backbone.

What are chromosomes?

Chromosomes are like threads made of tightly packed DNA strands packed with histones.

Fig-3

Chromosomes are formed from the twisted chain of double-stranded DNA that wrapped tightly around the pieces of proteins called histones and spun to form a rope known as chromatin which further spun tightly to form a perfect thread of chromosome (Fig-3)

In simple words, chromosomes are made of tightly wrapped DNA molecules around histones to form pairs in a eukaryotic cell nucleus.

There are about 23 pairs of chromosomes in the human cell nucleus.

A gene is any single segment of the chromosome thread which contains the heredity pieces of information including synthesizing building and demolishing or reconstructing proteins quantitatively. Genes decide the man about who he is at present and who he should be in the future. A single gene contains clear information about, physical behavior, growth, characters, and many many things.

A gene is a segment in the chromosome with a clear reading written by the jumbled nucleotide letters.

(e.g.)

Th iswh at Itr yt oexp lain-Nucleotides

This is what I try to explain-A gene

From the above anagrams, we can say nucleotides are single alphabets in a chromosome thread in an irregular scattered or jumbled manner by which a genetic character is fabricated to form a single gene.

Hence, in other words, nucleotides are scattered or jumbled chemical letters in a chromosomal thread in which a gene is fabricated by rearranging the letters to form a correct meaningful sentence that expresses a clear character. 

Thus chromosome contains many genes embossed in it.

In a human eukaryotic cell, there are 23 pairs of chromosomes of the total 46 chromosomes present.

Equation of the gene formation from the origin to end.                                                         DNA POLYMERASE

Proteins➝Nucleobases➡️Nucleotides⟶RNA⟶↲

DNA➡️DNA Helicase⟶DNA double-strand➡️histones➡️

Chromatins➡️Chromosomes➡️GENES (Fig-3)

Equation For Cell Protein Synthesis

Chromosomes➡️Chromatin➡️DNA➡️Genetic Copy(Transcription) mRNA➡️Translation by tRNA➡️Protein Synthesis by rRNA in Ribosomes.

Protein synthesis is a cyclic phenomenon. Proteins are essential for the cells to live. A cell uses proteins to make all of its contents of protoplasm, cytoplasmic organelles, nucleus, DNA, RNAs chromosomes, nucleotides, and genes. Again the gene instructs the organelle to synthesize protein. Hence it is a wonderful cyclic phenomenon in all eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.

Next Post: Wonders of Gene Technology

HONEY AND ITS WONDERS-2-ROYAL JELLY

 ROYAL JELLY

Royal jelly is a special milky product produced by the nursing or house bees to feed the larvae. Larvae are the worm-like structures hatched from the eggs. 

The queen bee is capable of laying at least 2000 eggs per day in its lifetime. The high egg-producing ovarian capacity of the queen bee is believed to be attributed to its lifetime feeding of Royal Jelly.

The eggs after grown into larvae are identified by the nursing bees as queens, drones(kings), workers, or nurses bees and are placed in separate compartments accordingly. (See Fig-1)

After that, the nursing bees feed them with a light white jelly-like substance known as Royal Jelly.

The Royal Jelly is secreted from the glands at the hypopharynx(lower portion of the throat and the entry into the food canal) of the nursing bees.

The nursing bees feed the larvae with Royal Jelly for three days without discrimination.

But after three days they stop to feed the drone larvae, and the worker larvae but continue to feed the queen larvae with Royal Jelly until it is a well-developed queen bee with healthy ovaries. The queen bee eats Royal Jelly as its food for its entire lifetime. The other worker larvae and the drone larvae are continued to feed with honey.

Fig 2

There are three types of honey bees. They are the queen bees, the drone bees, and the worker bees. The worker bees are some times called as nurse bees or house bees.

The queen bees are the largest in size and have the longest life span. 

They are fertile females with strong well-developed ovaries that can able to lay down up to 2000 eggs per day in their lifetime. 

The queen bees have a smooth sting at its back without a barb and venom. Usually, it would not come out of the hive, and they get fewer chances of biting a human being. But often it may bite other bees. Queen bee can bite repeatedly and it would not die. (See Fig-2)

The drone bees are the next largest in size and have the shortest life span.

The drone bees are fertile male bees with the strongest sexual mating power. But during mating with the queen bee when they attain the climax the erection and ejaculation would burst its male parts and the insect dies. Hence the drones would have only one chance of having sex in its lifetime.

Drone bees have no sting at their back. (See Fig-2)

The worker bees are smaller in size than the queen and the drone bees but larger in number and have higher in the job work. They are sterile females.

The worker bee is capable of traveling long distances to collect honey.

Some worker bees stay in the hives to do domestic jobs such as preparing food and feeding the queen bee and the young larvae. 

When the worker bee brings honey the nursing or house bee receives it by mouth to mouth sucking or sucking directly from the stomach of the honey collecting bee and store it in the combs.

The worker bees are venomous and dangerous. They are very furious and curious. They are the defending soldiers of the hive. They have a strong sharply barbed sting with venom. But they will bite only once in their lifetime and they will die.

The source of Royal Jelly is the pollen grains of the flowers. While the worker bee sucks the nectar from the flower it also contaminated with pollen grains. The pollen grains are the best source of protein for honey and Royal Jelly. The worker bees are manipulating honey by adding many additives like enzymes, minerals, vitamins, phytochemicals, fatty acids, and antioxidants along with proteins from the pollen grains.

A gland at the throat side of the worker bee prepares a protein-enriched jelly with the high nutritional value from the pollen grains to feed the larvae  The food is known as the Royal Jelly. (See Fig-2)

The Compositions Of Royal Jelly:-

Water                                                     67%

Protein                                                   13%

Simple sugars(Glucose+Fructose)         12%

Fatty Acids                                             06%

10-hydroxy,2-decanoic acid (HDA)       02%

Antibiotic components                            Traces

Minerals                                                   Traces

Pantothenic Acid     (Vitamin B5)           Traces

Pyridoxin                  (Vitamin B6)          Traces

Ascorbic Acid           (Vitamin C)            Traces

But the RJ contains none of the fat-soluble vitamins such as Vitamins A, D, E, or K.

Proteins give the RJ much food value. There are five types of proteins in the RJ. They are known as Major Royal Jelly Proteins. They are MRJP-1 to 5.

The MRJP1 occupies the major position among the MRJPs. All these proteins are made by the worker bee and added to the RJ.

These proteins are attributed to be involved in differential development of the larvae into a queen and a worker bee.

Cultivation of Royal Jelly:-

Royal Jelly is produced or harvested by stimulating bees colonies with movable artificial hives to produce more queen bees. 

Several queen cells are made in the artificial hives by placing 4 days of matured queen larvae in each chamber. At least 18 days old worker bees are carefully isolated and placed in each queen chambers to secrete RJ.

The queen larvae cell contains large quantities of RJ as deposits.

A well-managed hive with more queen cells during a season of 5 to 6 months can give 600gms of RJ.

Is RJ is beneficial to human beings?

There are many controversial and confused beliefs regarding this. There are very little medical proofs available about the benefits of RJ in people.

The compositions of RJ include proteins, fats, sugars vitamins, minerals, and many things that are good for health but most of them are present in traces which is sufficient only for a small insect, like the honey bee.

There is a belief that the transfat present in the RJ yields health benefits to the heart. Doctors recommend RJ as cardioprotective.

The protein and fat of the RJ are believed to be improving male sexual vigor and potency. 

Some researchers say that there are possible beneficial relieving effects from menopausal sufferings.

RJ may improve feelings of well being in menopausal women.

Insufficient pieces of evidence of benefits for the following discomforts:-

1.Diabetic foot ulcers

Some early researches showed that applying a mixture of RJ and panthenol in a cream or ointment base for six months after cleaning and removing dead tissues may give beneficial relief.

2.Infertility.

It was believed in early days that applying a mixture of RJ, honey, and bee bread to the vagina for two weeks may increase the rate of pregnancy in couples with fertility problems due to reduced sperm movement (asthenozoospermia)

3.High Cholesterol

It is suggested by early research that taking RJ by mouth, by injection or by sublingual may reduce blood cholesterol.

4.Premenstrual Syndrom (PMS).

It is suggested by early research that taking products containing RJ, bee pollen, pollen and pistil extract by mouth for two menstrual cycles seems to relieve symptoms of PMS such as irritability, weight gain, and swelling.

5.Asthma 

6.Liver Diseases

7.Pancreatitis

8.Sleeping trouble

9.Stomach ulcers

10.Kidney Disease

11.Bone Fractures

12.Skin Disorders

13.Baldness

14.Immunity-Boosting

Shreds of evidence are not sufficient to rank the efficacy of RJ for the above uses.

Safety Concerns.

Royal Jelly and its combinations may cause allergic reactions such as respiratory distress in asthma patients.

Usually, RJ is skin-friendly but when applied to the scalp it often produces allergic reactions such as inflammations and rashes.

It often causes swelling of the throat and death if a person is allergic to it.

Royal Jelly lowers blood pressure. Patients with low B.P. and those who take B.P. medicines for hypertension should not take RJ.

People with skin irritation and swelling should better avoid the use of RJ.

RJ may produce stomach pain and diarrhea.

Contraindications

1.Warfarin-An anticoagulant similar to clopidogrel

2.B.P.medicines-like atenolol,metoprolol,enalapril,amlodipine,nifedipine,

3.Co-enzyme Q-10-Food supplement

4.Fish oil           - Food supplement

5.Casein protein-Food supplement

L-Arginine         -Aminoacid,-Food supplement

Lycium               -Food supplement

Stinging nettle    -Food supplement

Theanine             -Amino acid

Proved Benefits of Royal Jelly:

1. If you are otherwise a healthy person not using any B.P control medicines RJ is perfect for you to maintain your blood pressure

2. Royal Jelly is good for heart functions through its hypotensive effect.

3. Royal Jelly antioxidants and hence reduce the risks of cancers.

4. Royal Jelly has anti-inflammatory effects.

5. Royal Jelly is a protein food supplement which is good for blood pressure.

6. Regulate blood sugar levels.

7. Royal Jelly is believed to have anti-bacterial effects.

8. Royal Jelly may provide relief from menopausal symptoms. (150mg/day for 3 months may improve cholesterol levels in menopausal women)

9. Some study results have shown that RJ is reducing blood glucose levels.

HONEY AND ITS WONDERS

HOW MUCH A DIABETIC CAN TAKE HONEY

Honey is a thick dark brown sweet syrupy secretion by the honey bees (Apis mellifera). The bees suck nectar from the flower and consume it as their food.

Honey is a wonder by nature. Its preparation by the queen bee is really a great wonder.

The worker bee travel within a circle of 5 to10 kilometer radii from its hive and when it gets attracted by a flower on the way for pollination it sucks the nectar (1/12 of a teaspoon/bee) from that flower contaminated with some pollen grains.

During the return journey, the process of digestion begins in various stages.

During the consumption and digestion, the nectar undergoes various processes and manipulations in the stomach of the bee such as reformations, additions of some specific substances, deposits, dehydration to a syrupy form, and finally secreted out and stored in the honeycomb.

The wonderful honey is made by concentrating the flower nectar so that 80% of the contents are in a simple 18% water by the worker bee and transferring it to the tiny house bee. The tiny house bee receives the concentrated honey and places it into the hexagonal compartment of the honeycomb. The honey is hygroscopic and the bee flaps its wings to ventilate the compartment and thereby let the honey to absorb some more moisture from the atmosphere in order to expand its water content from 18 to 36%. Finally, the house bee seals the compartment by wax to prevent further absorption of moisture.

The total carbs in 100gm of honey:-

Total carbs                                        =80gm (80%)

Free Glucose (Active carbs)            =35gm

Free Fructose   (Non-Active carbs) = 40gm

Sucrose (Glucose+ Fructose)          =5gm

Only glucose from sucrose (60%) =[60/100]x5

                                                       =3gm

Hence total active carbs (n)35+3   =38gm

The glycemic index (GI)of honey =55

ஃThe glycemic load (GL) = [nxGI]/100

                                    =[38x55]/100  =20.9❌
For 100gm honey the GL                =20.9

Hence for 40gm        [20/100]x40  =8✔️

Therefore a diabetic can take pure raw honey up to 40gm. Logically one can take 2 tablespoonfuls twice daily mixed with juices, tea, milk, or water.

Honey is available as pure and natural raw honey and adulterated processed honey.

Pure and unprocessed honey is a dark-colored and viscous syrup.

It contains 30 to 40% fructose. Its glucose content is lesser than sucrose (60%). Hence its glycemic index is 30 to 55 while the GI of sucrose is 60 (fixed). But honey's calorific value is 65 and table sugar's calorific value is only 39 albeit honey is the better choice for a diabetic patient than table sugar because of its glycemic index which is lesser than that for the table sugar.

Moreover honey contains molasses that act like fibers, vitamins, minerals, enzymes, and phytochemicals while the table sugar contains only sugars.

Honey's GI value is varying according to the source from which it is obtained.

Some variety of honey contains higher concentrations of natural fructose. The more the fructose concentration the less the glucose concentration and the less GI value. Because glucose is the active carb and it gives the GI value for honey.

Much of the honey's sweet taste is due to the presence of fructose as fructose is five times sweeter than glucose.

But in the market honey is mostly available in adulterated and processed form.

The processed honey looks like a clear, light, and pale brown or brownish-yellow color. This is because of the filtration and the addition of syrupy fructose to it.

Added sugars in any form like fructose, glucose, or sucrose are not good for health in general.

Natural fructose is not harmful rather it is more beneficial. The presence of natural fructose decides the GI and GL values of the sweet. But added fructose produces many harmful effects such as fatty- liver, obesity, and suppress and damages insulin-secreting cells.

Hence when you buy honey from the market take care of its texture and color.

Check the label for its contents. If it contains more natural fructose its glucose content must be within the range so that the total carbs are  60 to 80% of fructose + glucose.

For example if 

If fructose is 40% then the glucose must be within 30-35%. But if either or both of them exceed this limit then it is to be considered as either or both of them are added sugars and the honey is processed and diluted. 

Pure and natural honey contains protein, fat vitamin, enzymes, and minerals but in fractional quantities.

Hence honey is better than table sugar because table sugar contains only sugars with calories and has no vitamins and minerals.

Honey contains many enzymes and other phytochemicals which give the benefits of antioxidant, antiseptic, antimicrobial properties that contribute to a better immunity system.

Raw honey is a good cough suppressant and relieves sore throat.

Pure honey can also promote better digestion and sleep.

Honey should not be heated directly or mixed with any hot drinks as heat destroys most of the honey's nutritional values.

The maximum heat level allowed for honey is 95´-130 degrees Fahrenheit. Heating honey more than this limit will destroy its nutritional values may turn the product into poison which will have detrimental effects on the body's health. 

Pasteurized Honey:-

Honey can be pasteurized but within 140 deg.F. As honey is more acidic (pH=<4) it is not necessary to heat honey at higher temperatures during pasteurization. Pasteurized honey is good for children but it must be raw honey. Almost all microbes can be killed at <140 deg F including the spores of Clostridium Botulinum which is the main bacterial contamination in honey. Pasteurizing honey can be done by heating honey in water or steam to 130deg F for 3 to 10 minutes and rapidly cooling it by storing it in a cool and dry place. Do not refrigerate. Honey should not be heated directly on fire.

Some Health Recipe by Honey:-

Ŕ-1-To shed off extra fat.

Light warm water (<40degC)  =1glass (50ml)

Pure honey                                  =1-2 teaspoon

Mix and drink on an empty stomach every day morning and night in an empty stomach half an hour before breakfast to shed off extra fat.

Ŕ-2-As A Cough and Cold Remedy

Light warm tea                             =1glass (50ml)

Pure honey                                   =1table spoon

Lemon juice                                 =2table spoon

Ginger juice                                  =2table spoon

Mix and take every day at night after dinner to get relieved from sore throat, dry and productive cough.

R-3-As A Cold Remedy

Lemon water                             -1glass

Pure honey                                -2teaspoon

Mix and take morning and evening after meals.

Honey can be used as a skin rub for pruritus, and skin wounds. 

Thanks to its peroxide activities as honey can be used for acne treatments.

Honey can be used as a skin moisturizer.

Honey can be used as antibacterial.

Some times to some people applying pure honey may irritate the skin, in that case, it can be mixed with milk, turmeric, coconut paste, or skin creams before applying on the skin.

Applying honey on the face and leave it for a while and wash it will give a clear and fresh look.

Honey is a good humectant that can well moisturize dry and damaged skin and hair.

Disadvantages of Honey:-

1. The main disadvantage is raw and pure honey should not be given to infants of age below one year as it contains the microbial impurity Clostridium Botulinum or botulin poison.

Symptoms of Botulin Poison in infants:-

1.Constipation

2.Unable to cry (very weak cry)

3.Muscle weakness (unable to crawl)

4.uncontrolled head shakes

5.Irritability

6.Drooling

7.Drooping eyelids

Clostridium Botulinum is not doing much harm to adults and babies above 1year of age.

2. Processed and refined honey is free from molasses and hence it gives more calories followed by high GI and GL values.

Normally honey has high calories in a tablespoon(21gm)   =64calories

21gm of honey contains 17gm of sugars

But in raw honey, there are molasses, vitamins, minerals, phenols, and peroxides that mask these high sugar values and its Glycemic Load is very low and hence it is safe.

3. Honey is a humectant for dry and damaged hair. But if applied to normal healthy hair it may discolor the hair in sunlight. Also, it may cause hair to fall.

This is because honey contains many enzymes like invertase and glucose oxidase.

Invertase converts sucrose into glucose and fructose. 

Glucose oxidase in the presence of sunlight oxidizes glucose into hydrogen peroxide which is a bleaching agent and will convert your hair color into white.

Pasteurization of Honey

Raw honey is good for health albeit it is pasteurized to inactivate spores of Clostridium botulinum which causes botulism poisoning in infants. 

Pasteurized honey has no nutritional values as high heat (140 to 170 F) may destroy many valuable minerals. But this can be given to babies as it has no fungus and bacterial spores

In general, honey is good if handled properly.

FORMULA FOR CALCULATING THE AMOUNT OF SWEET TO BE CONSUMED BY USING THE GI-GL TABLE

FORMULA AND EXAMPLES TO CALCULATE AVAILABLE CARBS FROM THE GI & GL TABLE

Usually, the GI and GL tables are giving some parameters like glycemic index and glycemic load only but not the exact serving amount or portion of the food that represents the glycemic load.

For example, from the table, a medium-sized mango represents the glycemic (GL) 18.9 which is above normal (ie.>10) which a diabetic cannot take.

But if he knows the exact weight of that medium-size then he could reduce or cut down the weight of the mango to bring down the glycemic index to suit his need.

To eliminate such ambiguity in determining the size of the diet the following simple algebraic formula is very helpful.

Glycemic Load (GL)=[n x glycemic index(GI)]/100

where n-is the available sugar.

Hence by rearranging the above algebraic formula,

The available sugar (n) =[Glycemic Load x100]/GI

EXAMPLE-MEDIUM SIZED MANGO

Glycemic Index (GI)                   =56

Glycemic Load   (GL)                 =18.9

Hence the active sugar =[GL/GI]x100

                                     =[18.9/56]x100= 33.75gm

For 33.75gm the GL    =18.9

For x-gm  the GL   =9  ; x=?

Proportionality equation  =[18.9/33.75]=[9/x]

                                         =[x x 18.9]=[9 x 33.75]

Hence                          x  =[9 x 33.75]/18.9

                                        =16.07gm 

You can find out the amount of mango which contains 16gm active carbohydrates in google search.

A diabetic patient can consume mango up to 100gms which contains the sugar 13 to16gm in alternate days.